Understanding How Arguments Work
A Foundation in Evidence, Reasoning, and Development
Introduction: Why Do Arguments Matter?
Have you ever tried to convince a friend to watch your favorite show? Or perhaps you've tried to persuade your parents to extend your curfew? If so, you've made arguments! In writing, arguments work similarly, but they follow specific structures and rules that make them more effective. This chapter will teach you how to construct powerful written arguments that can convince any reader.
Section 1: Starting with the Basics - Claims and Evidence
What Is a Claim?
Let's start with something simple: what exactly is a claim? A claim is like taking a stand or making a promise to your reader. It's what you believe and want others to believe too.
Simple claims might sound like:
"Pizza is the best food for parties"
"Dogs make better pets than cats"
"Summer is better than winter"
More complex claims sound like:
"Social media's influence on teenagers requires stricter regulation"
"The current education system needs significant reform"
"Environmental protection should take priority over economic growth"
Notice how each claim takes a position that someone else might disagree with. That's what makes it a claim rather than just a fact!
Understanding Evidence: Your Support System
Evidence is like the foundation of a house - without it, everything falls apart. But what counts as evidence? Let's break it down:
Types of Evidence:
Facts and Statistics
Numbers from research
Historical dates and events
Scientific findings
Expert Opinions
Quotes from professionals
Published research
Expert analysis
Personal Experiences
First-hand accounts
Observations
Relevant stories
Examples
Real-world situations
Case studies
Specific instances
Let's see how this works with a simple argument:
Bad Example:
Claim: Breakfast is the most important meal of the day.
Evidence: Some people say it's good for you.
Why it's weak: The evidence is vague and unsupported.
Good Example:
Claim: Breakfast is the most important meal of the day.
Evidence:
A 2022 study found that students who eat breakfast score 12% higher on morning tests
Nutritionists report that breakfast jumpstarts metabolism
Personal experience: When I started eating breakfast, my morning focus improved dramatically
Connecting Claims and Evidence: The Missing Link
Having claims and evidence isn't enough - you need to explain how they connect. This is called commentary or analysis. Think of it as being a tour guide for your reader:
Claim: Schools should start later in the morning.
Evidence: A study showed that schools starting at 8:30 AM saw a 34% reduction in car accidents involving teenage drivers.
Commentary: This significant reduction in accidents demonstrates that teenagers are more alert and make better decisions when they get adequate sleep. Starting school later directly contributes to student safety.
Section 2: Building Your Argument - Lines of Reasoning
What Is a Line of Reasoning?
Think of a line of reasoning as the path you create for your reader to follow. Just like giving someone directions to your house, you need to guide them step by step.
Two Main Ways to Guide Your Reader:
The Direct Route (Thesis-First)
Example Structure:
Here's what I believe (Thesis)
Here's my first reason why
Here's my second reason why
Here's my third reason why
So, as you can see, I'm right!
Real Example:
Thesis: School uniforms benefit students
↓
Reason 1: They reduce economic disparities
↓
Reason 2: They improve focus on learning
↓
Reason 3: They increase school safety
↓
Conclusion: Therefore, schools should adopt uniforms
The Discovery Route (Delayed-Thesis)
Example Structure:
Here's an interesting situation
Let's look at some evidence
Here's what this evidence suggests
Here's more evidence
Based on all this, here's what I believe
Real Example:
Situation: Rising student stress levels
↓
Evidence: Increased counseling visits
↓
Analysis: Impact on grades
↓
Evidence: Teacher observations
↓
Thesis: Schools need mental health days
Making Your Reasoning Clear
Imagine you're holding your reader's hand and walking them through your thoughts. Here's how:
Use Clear Transitions
First, Second, Third
Furthermore, Additionally, Moreover
However, On the other hand
Therefore, Consequently, As a result
Show Relationships
Weak Connection:
Teenagers use social media. Depression rates are rising.
Strong Connection:
Teenagers who spend more than four hours daily on social media show a 70% higher rate of depression, suggesting that excessive social media use may contribute to mental health issues.
Section 3: Methods of Development - Different Ways to Present Your Argument
Method 1: Telling a Story (Narration)
Sometimes the best way to make your point is to tell a story. This works especially well when personal experiences can illustrate your argument.
Example:
Weak Argument:
Volunteering is important.
Strong Narrative Argument:
When I first volunteered at the local food bank, I expected to help others. What I didn't expect was how it would change me. On my first day, I met Maria, a single mother of three who worked two jobs but still couldn't make ends meet. As I helped her select groceries, she shared her story. That day taught me that volunteering isn't just about giving time – it's about understanding our community's needs firsthand. Over the next six months, I met dozens of families like Maria's, each challenging my assumptions about poverty and need in our community.
Method 2: Showing Cause and Effect
This method helps readers understand how one thing leads to another. It's perfect for explaining complex relationships.
Structure Options:
Single Cause → Multiple Effects
Cause: Introduction of smartphones
↓
Effect 1: Decreased attention spans
Effect 2: Increased social connectivity
Effect 3: Changes in sleep patterns
Multiple Causes → Single Effect
Cause 1: Poor diet
Cause 2: Lack of exercise
Cause 3: Sedentary lifestyle
→ Effect: Rise in obesity rates
Chain Reaction
Late school start times
↓
More student sleep
↓
Better concentration
↓
Improved grades
↓
Higher college acceptance rates
Method 3: Compare and Contrast
This method examines similarities and differences between things. It's helpful when you want to evaluate options or show why one thing is better than another.
Two Ways to Organize:
Block Method (Subject by Subject)
Online Learning:
Flexibility
Cost-effective
Technology challenges
Traditional Learning:
Structure
Face-to-face interaction
Higher costs
Analysis of Differences
Point-by-Point Method
Flexibility:
Online: Study anytime
Traditional: Fixed schedule
Cost:
Online: Lower costs
Traditional: Higher expenses
Interaction:
Online: Virtual
Traditional: In-person
Method 4: Definition
Sometimes you need to explain exactly what something is or isn't. Definition helps readers understand complex ideas.
Ways to Define:
Official Definition
According to the American Psychological Association, anxiety is...
Examples and Non-Examples
Democracy Is:
Free elections
Freedom of speech
Equal rights
Democracy Is Not:
Controlled media
Limited voting rights
Government censorship
Parts and Pieces
A smartphone consists of:
Hardware (screen, processor, camera)
Software (operating system, apps)
Features (calling, internet, GPS)
Section 4: Putting Everything Together
Step-by-Step Guide to Writing an Argument
Plan Your Approach
What's your main claim?
Who's your audience?
Which method of development fits best?
Gather Your Evidence
Find relevant facts
Identify expert opinions
Consider personal experiences
Look for strong examples
Organize Your Thoughts
Introduction:
Hook reader's interest
Provide background
State your claim (unless using delayed thesis)
Body Paragraphs:
Topic sentence (mini-claim)
Evidence
Commentary
Transition to next point
Conclusion:
Restate main points
Expand significance
Call to action
Connect Everything
Use clear transitions
Explain relationships
Guide your reader
Example of a Complete Argument
Topic: School Start Times
Introduction:
High schools should start no earlier than 8:30 AM to support student health and academic success.
Body Paragraph 1:
Claim: Early start times harm student health
Evidence: Medical studies show teenagers naturally fall asleep later
Commentary: This biological fact means early starts force students to fight their natural sleep patterns
Body Paragraph 2:
Claim: Later starts improve academic performance
Evidence: Schools with 8:30 starts saw 15% grade improvement
Commentary: Better rested students can focus and learn more effectively
Body Paragraph 3:
Claim: Safety increases with later starts
Evidence: 70% reduction in drowsy driving accidents
Commentary: Alert students make better decisions and are safer drivers
Conclusion:
While changing start times requires adjustment, the benefits to student health, academic performance, and safety make it worthwhile.
Practice Activities
Claim Creation Practice
Write claims about familiar topics, then revise them to be more specific:
Basic: "Homework is bad."
Better: "Excessive homework negatively impacts student well-being."
Your Turn: Write three claims about school policies
Evidence Scavenger Hunt
Find three different types of evidence for this claim: "Schools should have longer lunch periods."
Find a statistic
Find an expert opinion
Find a personal experience
Commentary Development
Practice connecting evidence to claims:
Claim: Art classes are valuable
Evidence: Students in art programs score higher on creativity tests
Your Commentary: ______________________
Method Selection
For each topic, choose the best method of development and explain why:
Climate change
Social media effects
Dress codes
Healthy eating
Review Questions
Basic Understanding
What makes something a claim?
How is evidence different from commentary?
Why do we need transitions?
Application
How would you support a claim about school lunches?
Which method would best argue for recycling?
How could you use cause and effect to discuss technology?
Analysis
What makes some evidence stronger than others?
When might a delayed thesis work better?
How do different methods of development affect your argument?
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Unsupported Claims
Wrong: "Everyone knows social media is bad."
Right: "Research shows excessive social media use correlates with increased anxiety."
Missing Commentary
Wrong: "Schools should have uniforms. A study showed better grades."
Right: "Schools should have uniforms because research shows students in uniform schools demonstrate improved academic performance, likely due to reduced social pressure and increased focus on learning."
Unclear Reasoning
Wrong: "Technology is good. People use phones. Therefore, phones are good."
Right: "Mobile technology enhances communication by providing instant access to information and connecting people across distances. This connectivity leads to better business efficiency and stronger personal relationships."
Glossary of Key Terms
Claim: Your arguable position or main point
Evidence: Support for your claim (facts, statistics, examples)
Commentary: Your explanation connecting evidence to claims
Line of Reasoning: The logical path of your argument
Transition: Words or phrases that connect ideas
Thesis: Your main argument or position
Method of Development: How you organize and present your argument
Additional Resources
Writing Center websites
Online argument analysis tools
Example essays and analysis
Practice worksheets and exercises
Remember: Building strong arguments takes practice. Don't expect perfection right away. Start with clear claims, find solid evidence, explain your connections, and guide your reader carefully through your reasoning. With time and practice, you'll become a skilled argumentative writer!